The first known inhabitants of New Mexico were members of the Clovis culture of Paleo-Indians.^[11]: 19 Footprints discovered in 2017 suggest that humans may have been present in the region as long ago as 21,000–23,000 BC.^[12] Later inhabitants include the Mogollon, Ancestral Pueblo cultures, which are characterized by sophisticated pottery work and urban development;^[13]: 52 pueblos or their remnants, like those at Acoma, Taos, and Chaco Culture National Historical Park, indicate the scale of Ancestral Puebloan dwellings within the area. These cultures and the Ute form part of the broader Oasisamerica region of pre-Contact North America.^[14]

Navajos may be descendants of the lost Naha tribe, a Slavey tribe from the Nahanni region west of Great Slave Lake.^[15]

The vast trade networks of the Ancestral Puebloans led to legends throughout Mesoamerica and the Aztec Empire (Mexico) of an unseen northern empire that rivaled their own, which they called Yancuic Mexico, literally translated as “a new Mexico”.^{[citation needed]}

Aztec legends of a prosperous empire to their north became the primary basis for the mythical Seven Cities of Gold, which spurred exploration by Spanish conquistadors following their conquest of the Aztecs in the early 16th century; prominent explorers included Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca, Andrés Dorantes de Carranza, Alonso del Castillo Maldonado, Estevanico, and Marcos de Niza.^[16]

In 1539, Esteban de Dorantes became the first person from the Old World to reach New Mexico, where was killed by Pueblo peoples.^[17][18] Francisco Vázquez de Coronado arrived in 1540. In 1598 conquistador Juan de Oñate y Salazar began the Spanish colonization of New Mexico.^[19] The campaign included Oñate’s 1599 Ácoma Massacre.^[20] Oñate arrived at Acoma Pueblo on January 21 with an army including cannons and muskets. The Spanish set fire to the Pueblo.^[20] Approximately 800–1000 Ácoma were murdered.^[21] After this initial attack, on February 12, Oñate ordered that the right foot be cut off every man over 25.^[20]

The settlement of La Villa Real de la Santa Fe de San Francisco de Asís—modern day Santa Fe – was established by Pedro de Peralta as a more permanent capital at the foot of the Sangre de Cristo Mountains in 1610.^{[22]: 182 [16]}

The first successful revolution against European rule in the Americas occurred with the 1680 Pueblo Revolt. From Taos Pueblo, the Pueblo leader Po’pay rallied the Pueblo peoples into expelling the Spanish from New Mexico. He would rule the Pueblo republic until his death.^[23][24]

After the death of Pueblo leader Po’pay, some Pueblo leaders invited the Spanish to return to New Mexico. Diego de Vargas led the return of hte Spanish in 1692.^{[13]: 68–75} with Puebloans offered greater cultural and religious liberties.^{[25][26][11]: 6, 48} Compared to the previous colonial regime, the Spanish sought relative compromise with the Pueblos on religious matters, seeking to avoid another revolt. Beyond forging better relations with the Pueblos, governors were forbearing in their approach to the indigenous peoples, such as was with governor Tomás Vélez Cachupín;^[27] the comparatively large reservations in New Mexico and Arizona are partly a legacy of Spanish treaties recognizing indigenous land claims in Nuevo México.

Returning settlers founded La Villa de Alburquerque in 1706 at Old Town Albuquerque as a trading center for existing surrounding communities such as Barelas, Isleta, Los Ranchos, and Sandia;^[13]: 84 it was named for the viceroy of New Spain, Francisco Fernández de la Cueva, 10th Duke of Alburquerque.^[28] Governor Francisco Cuervo y Valdés established the villa in Tiguex to provide free trade access and facilitate cultural exchange in the region.

To encourage settlement in its vulnerable periphery amidst the increased power and reach of Comanche raids, Spain awarded land grants to European settlers in Nuevo México; due to the scarcity of water throughout the region, the vast majority of colonists resided in the central valley of the Rio Grande and its tributaries. Most communities were walled enclaves consisting of adobe houses that opened onto a plaza, from which four streets ran outward to small, private agricultural plots and orchards; these were watered by acequias, community owned and operated irrigation canals. Just beyond the wall was the ejido, communal land for grazing, firewood, or recreation.

While New Mexico was legally part of New Spain, it fell under the influence of Comancheria in with the 1785 and 1786 Comanche-Spanish peace treaties and became a de facto protectorate, with New Mexico refusing multiple orders from Madrid and Mexico City to go to war with the Comanche.^[29][30] Nevertheless, relations between the various indigenous groups and Spanish settlers remained nebulous and complex, varying from trade and commerce to cultural assimilation and intermarriage to total warfare. During most of the 18th century, raids by Navajo, Apache, and especially Comanche inhibited the growth and prosperity of the New Mexico. The region’s harsh environment and remoteness, surrounded by hostile Native Americans, fostered a greater degree of self-reliance, as well as pragmatic cooperation, between the Pueblo peoples and colonists. Many indigenous communities enjoyed a large measure of autonomy well into the late 19th century due to the improved governance.

By 1800, the population of New Mexico had reached 25,000 (not including indigenous inhabitants), far exceeding the territories of California and Texas.^[31]

As part of New Spain, the province of New Mexico became part of the First Mexican Empire in 1821 following the Mexican War of Independence.^[13]: 109 Upon its secession from Mexico in 1836, the Republic of Texas claimed the portion east of the Rio Grande, based on the erroneous assumption that the older Hispanic settlements of the upper Rio Grande were the same as the newly established Mexican settlements of Texas. The Texan Santa Fe Expedition was launched to seize the contested territory but failed with the capture and imprisonment of the entire army by the Hispanic New Mexico militia.

At the turn of the 19th century, France still claimed northeastern New Mexico—the area north of the Canadian River and east of the Sangre de Cristos—before selling it in the 1803 Louisiana Purchase. In 1812, the U.S. reclassified the land as part of the Missouri Territory. This region of New Mexico (along with territory comprising present-day southeastern Colorado, the Texas and Oklahoma Panhandles, and southwestern Kansas) was ceded to Spain under the Adams-Onis Treaty in 1819.

When the First Mexican Republic began to transition into the Centralist Republic of Mexico, they began to centralize power ignoring the sovereignty of Santa Fe and disregarding Pueblo land rights. The end of Spanish protectionism led to New Mexico becoming financially and politically tied to the U.S., and preferring trade along the Santa Fe Trail. This led to the Río Arriba Rebellion in 1837, which established the Cantón de Nuevo México led by Taos Pueblo members José María González and Pablo Montoya.^[32][33] The rebellion began with the assassination of Centralist governor Albino Pérez and ended with the execution of González was executed by governor Manuel Armijo. Subsequent governor Juan Bautista Vigil y Alarid agreed with some of the underlying sentiment.^[34]

Following the victory of the United States in the Mexican–American War (1846–48), Mexico ceded its northern territories to the U.S., including California, Texas, and New Mexico.^[13]: 132 The Americans were initially heavy-handed in their treatment of former Mexican citizens, triggering the Taos Revolt in 1847 by Hispanos and their Pueblo allies; the insurrection led to the death of territorial governor Charles Bent and the collapse of the civilian government established by Stephen W. Kearny. In response, the U.S. government appointed local Donaciano Vigil as governor to better represent New Mexico,^[35] and also vowed to accept the land rights of Hispanos and grant them citizenship. In 1864, President Abraham Lincoln symbolized the recognition of Native land rights with the Lincoln Canes, sceptres of office gifted to each of the Pueblos, a tradition dating back to Spanish and Mexican eras.^[36][37]

After the Republic of Texas was admitted as a state in 1846, it attempted to claim the eastern portion of New Mexico east of the Rio Grande, while the California Republic and State of Deseret each claimed parts of western New Mexico. Under the Compromise of 1850, these regions were forced by the U.S. government to drop their claims, Texas received $10 million in federal funds, California was granted statehood, and officially establishing the Utah Territory; therein recognizing most of New Mexico’s historically established land claims.^[13]: 135 Pursuant to the compromise, Congress established the New Mexico Territory in September of that year;^[38] it included most of present-day Arizona and New Mexico, along with the Las Vegas Valley and what would later become Clark County in Nevada.

In 1853 the U.S. acquired the mostly desert southwestern bootheel of the state, along with Arizona’s land south of the Gila River, in the Gadsden Purchase, which was needed for the right-of-way to encourage construction of a transcontinental railroad.^[13]: 136

Civil war effects in New Mexico

New Mexico territory including Arizona, 1860

Territories divided, 1867

When the U.S. Civil War broke out in 1861, both Confederate and Union governments claimed ownership and territorial rights over New Mexico Territory. The Confederacy claimed the southern tract as its own Arizona Territory and, as part of the Trans-Mississippi Theater of the war, waged the ambitious New Mexico Campaign to control the American Southwest and open up access to Union California. The Confederates initially managed to conquer Santa Fe, making it the only U.S. capital to fall to the Confederacy during the war. Confederate power in the New Mexico Territory was effectively broken after the Battle of Glorieta Pass in 1862, though the Confederate territorial government continued to operate out of Texas. More than 8,000 soldiers from New Mexico Territory served in the Union Army.^[39]

The end of the Civil War saw rapid economic development and settlement in New Mexico, which attracted homesteaders, ranchers, cowboys, businessmen, and outlaws;^[40] many of the folklore characters of the Western genre had their origins in New Mexico, most notably businesswoman Maria Gertrudis Barceló, outlaw Billy the Kid, and lawmen Pat Garrett and Elfego Baca. The influx of “Anglo Americans” from the eastern U.S. (which include African Americans and recent European immigrants) reshaped the state’s economy, culture, and politics. Into the late 19th century, the majority of New Mexicans remained ethnic mestizos of mixed Spanish and Native American ancestry (primarily Pueblo, Navajo, Apache, Genízaro, and Comanche), many of whom had roots going back to Spanish settlement in the 16th century; this distinctly New Mexican ethnic group became known as Hispanos and developed a more pronounced identity vis-a-vis the newer Anglo arrivals. Politically, they still controlled most town and county offices through local elections, and wealthy ranching families commanded considerable influence, preferring business, legislative, and judicial relations with fellow indigenous New Mexican groups. By contrast, Anglo Americans, who were “outnumbered, but well-organized and growing”^[41] tended to have more ties to the territorial government, whose officials were appointed by the U.S. federal government; subsequently, newer residents of New Mexico generally favored maintaining territorial status, which they saw as a check on Native and Hispano influence.

A consequence of the civil war was intensifying conflict with indigenous peoples, which was part of the broader American Indian Wars along the frontier. The withdrawal of troops and material for the war effort had prompted raids by hostile tribes, and the federal government moved to subdue the many native communities that had been effectively autonomous throughout the colonial period. Following the elimination of the Confederate threat, Brigadier General James Carleton, who had assumed command of the Military Department of New Mexico in 1862, led what he described as a “merciless war against all hostile tribes” that aimed to “force them to their knees, and then confine them to reservations where they could be Christianized and instructed in agriculture.”^[40] With famed frontiersman Kit Carson placed in charge of troops in the field, powerful indigenous groups such as the Navajo, Mescalero Apache, Kiowa, and Comanche were brutally pacified through a scorched earth policy, and thereafter forced into barren and remote reservations. Sporadic conflicts continued into the late 1880s, most notably the guerilla campaigns led by Apache chiefs Victorio and his son-in-law Nana.

The political and cultural clashes between these competing ethnic groups sometimes culminated in mob violence, including lynchings of Native, Hispanic, and Mexican peoples, as was attempted at the Frisco shootout in 1884. Nevertheless, prominent figures from across these communities, and from both the Democratic and Republican parties, attempted to fight this prejudice and forge a more cohesive, multiethnic New Mexican identity; they include lawmen Baca and Garrett, and governors Curry, Hagerman, and Otero.^[42][43] Indeed, some territorial governors, like Lew Wallace, had served in both the Mexican and American militaries.^[44]

In the early to mid-20th century, the art presence in Santa Fe grew, and it became known as one of the world’s great art centers.^{[45][46][promotional source?]} The presence of artists such as Georgia O’Keeffe attracted many others, including those along Canyon Road.^[47] In the late 20th century, Native Americans were authorized by federal law to establish gaming casinos on their reservations under certain conditions, in states which had authorized such gaming. Such facilities have helped tribes close to population centers generate revenues for reinvestment in the economic development and welfare of their peoples. The Albuquerque metropolitan area is home to several casinos as a result.^[48]

The United States Congress admitted New Mexico as the 47th state on January 6, 1912.^[13]: 166 It had been eligible for statehood 60 years earlier, but was delayed due to the perception that its majority Hispanic population was “alien” to U.S. culture and political values.^[49] When the U.S. entered the First World War roughly five years later, New Mexicans volunteered in significant numbers, in part to prove their loyalty as full-fledged citizens of the U.S. The state ranked fifth in the nation for military service, enlisting more than 17,000 recruits from all 33 counties; over 500 New Mexicans were killed in the war.^[50]

Indigenous-Hispanic families had long been established since the Spanish and Mexican era,^[51] but most American settlers in the state had an uneasy relationship with the large Native American tribes.^[52] Most indigenous New Mexicans lived on reservations and near old placitas and villas. In 1924, Congress passed a law granting all Native Americans U.S. citizenship and the right to vote in federal and state elections. However, Anglo-American arrivals into New Mexico enacted Jim Crow laws against Hispanos, Hispanic Americans, and those who did not pay taxes, targeting indigenous affiliated individuals;^[53] because Hispanics often had interpersonal relationships with indigenous peoples, they were often subject to segregation, social inequality, and employment discrimination.^[52]

During the fight for women’s suffrage in the United States, New Mexico’s Hispano and Mexican women at the forefront included Trinidad Cabeza de Baca, Dolores “Lola” Armijo, Mrs. James Chavez, Aurora Lucero, Anita “Mrs. Secundino” Romero, Arabella “Mrs. Cleofas” Romero and her daughter, Marie.^[54][55]

A major oil discovery in 1928 near the town of Hobbs brought greater wealth to the state, especially in surrounding Lea County.^[56] The New Mexico Bureau of Mines and Mineral Resources called it “the most important single discovery of oil in New Mexico’s history”.^[57] Nevertheless, agriculture and cattle ranching remained the primary economic activities.

New Mexico was greatly transformed by the U.S. entry into the Second World War in December 1941. As in the First World War, patriotism ran high among New Mexicans, including among marginalized Hispanic and indigenous communities; on a per capita basis, New Mexico produced more volunteers, and suffered more casualties, than any other state. The war also spurred economic development, particularly in extractive industries, with the state becoming a leading supplier of several strategic resources. New Mexico’s rough terrain and geographic isolation made it an attractive location for several sensitive military and scientific installations; the most famous was Los Alamos, one of the central facilities of the Manhattan Project, where the first atomic bombs were designed and manufactured. The first bomb was tested at Trinity site in the desert between Socorro and Alamogordo, which is today part of the White Sands Missile Range.^{[13]: 179–180}

As a legacy of the Second World War, New Mexico continues to receive large amounts of federal government spending on major military and research institutions that continue to this day.^[58] In addition to the White Sands Missile Range, the state hosts three U.S. Air Force bases that were established or expanded during the war. While the high military presence brought considerable investment, it has also been the center of controversy; on May 22, 1957, a B-36 accidentally dropped a nuclear bomb 4.5 miles from the control tower while landing at Kirtland Air Force Base in Albuquerque; only its conventional “trigger” detonated.^[59][60] The Los Alamos National Laboratory and Sandia National Laboratories, two of the nation’s leading federal scientific research facilities, originated from the Manhattan Project. The focus on high technology is still a top priority of the state, to the extent that it became a center for unidentified flying objects, especially following the 1947 Roswell incident.

New Mexico’s population nearly doubled from roughly 532,000 in 1940 to over 954,000 by 1960.^[61][62] In addition to federal personnel and agencies, many residents and businesses moved to the state, particularly from the northeast, often drawn by its warm climate and low taxes.^[63] The pattern continues into the 21st century, with New Mexico adding over 400,000 residents between 2000 and 2020.

Native Americans from New Mexico fought for the United States in both world wars. Returning veterans were disappointed to find their civil rights limited by state discrimination. In Arizona and New Mexico, veterans challenged state laws or practices prohibiting them from voting. In 1948, after veteran Miguel Trujillo Sr. of Isleta Pueblo was told by the county registrar that he could not register to vote, he filed suit against the county in federal district court. A three-judge panel overturned as unconstitutional New Mexico’s provisions that Native Americans who did not pay taxes (and could not document if they had paid taxes) could not vote.^{[53][Note 2]}

In the 21st century, employment growth areas in New Mexico include electronic circuitry, scientific research, information technology, casinos, art of the American Southwest, food, film, and media, particularly in Albuquerque.^[64] The state was the founding location of Micro Instrumentation and Telemetry Systems, which led to the founding of Microsoft in Albuquerque.^[65] Intel maintains their F11X in Rio Rancho, which also hosts an IT center for HP Inc.^[66][67] New Mexico’s culinary scene became recognized and is now a source of revenue for the state.^[68][69][70] Albuquerque Studios has become a filming hub for Netflix, and it was brought international media production companies to the state like NBCUniversal.^[71][72][73]

The COVID-19 pandemic was confirmed to have reached the U.S. state of New Mexico on March 11, 2020. On December 23, 2020, the New Mexico Department of Health reported 1,174 new COVID-19 cases and 40 deaths, bringing the cumulative statewide totals to 133,242 cases and 2,243 deaths since the start of the pandemic.^[74]

New Mexico has long been known for its dry, temperate climate.^[79] Overall, the state is semi-arid to arid, with areas of continental and alpine climates at higher elevations. New Mexico’s statewide average precipitation is 13.7 inches (350 mm) a year, with average monthly amounts peaking in the summer, particularly in the more rugged north-central area around Albuquerque and in the south. Generally, the eastern third of the state receives the most rainfall, while the western third receives the least. Higher altitudes receive around 40 inches (1,000 mm), while the lowest elevations see as little as 8 to 10 inches (200 to 250 millimetres).^[79]

Annual temperatures can range from 65 °F (18 °C) in the southeast to below 40 °F (4 °C) in the northern mountains,^[78] with the average being the mid-50s °F (12 °C). During the summer, daytime temperatures can often exceed 100 °F (38 °C) at elevations below 5,000 feet (1,500 m); the average high temperature in July ranges from 99 °F (37 °C) at the lower elevations down to 78 °F (26 °C) at the higher elevations. In the colder months of November to March, many cities in New Mexico can have nighttime temperature lows in the teens above zero, or lower. The highest temperature recorded in New Mexico was 122 °F (50 °C) at the Waste Isolation Pilot Plant (WIPP) near Loving on June 27, 1994; the lowest recorded temperature is −57 °F (−49 °C) at Ciniza (near Jamestown) on January 13, 1963.^[84]

New Mexico’s stable climate and sparse population provides for clearer skies and less light pollution, making it a popular site for several major astronomical observatories, including the Apache Point Observatory, the Very Large Array, and the Magdalena Ridge Observatory, among others.^[85][86]

Owing to its varied topography, New Mexico has six distinct vegetation zones that provide diverse sets of habitats for many plants and animals.^[87] The Upper Sonoran Zone is by far the most prominent, constituting about three-fourths of the state; it includes most of the plains, foothills, and valleys above 4,500 feet (1,400 meters), and is defined by prairie grasses, low piñon pines, and juniper shrubs. The Llano Estacado in the east features Shortgrass Prairie with blue grama, which sustain bison. The Chihuahuan Desert in the south is characterized by shrubby creosote. The Colorado Plateau in the northwest corner of New Mexico is high desert with cold winters, featuring sagebrush, shadescale, greasewood, and other plants adapted to the saline and seleniferous soil.

The mountainous north hosts a wide array of vegetation types corresponding to elevation gradients, such as piñon-juniper woodlands near the base, through evergreen conifers, spruce–fir and aspen forests in the transitionary zone, and Krummholz, and alpine tundra at the very top.^[87] The Apachian zone tucked into the southwestern bootheel of the state has high-calcium soil, oak woodlands, Arizona cypress, and other plants that are not found in other parts of the state.^[88][89] The southern sections of the Rio Grande and Pecos valleys have 20,000 square miles (52,000 square kilometers) of New Mexico’s best grazing land and irrigated farmland.

New Mexico’s varied climate and vegetation zones consequently support diverse wildlife. Black bears, bighorn sheep, bobcats, cougars, deer, and elk live in habitats above 7,000 feet (2,100 meters), while coyotes, jackrabbits, kangaroo rats, javelina, porcupines, pronghorn antelope, western diamondbacks, and wild turkeys live in less mountainous and elevated regions.^[90][91][92] The iconic roadrunner, which is the state bird, is abundant in the southeast. Endangered species include the Mexican gray wolf, which is being gradually reintroduced in the world, and Rio Grande silvery minnow.^[93] Over 500 species of birds live or migrate through New Mexico, third only to California and Mexico.^[94]

New Mexico and 12 other western states together account for 93% of all federally owned land in the U.S. Roughly a third of the state, or 24.7 million of 77.8 million acres, is held by the U.S. government, the tenth-highest proportion in the country. More than half this land is under the Bureau of Land Management as either public domain land or National Conservation Lands, while another third is managed by the U.S. Forest Service as national forests.^[95]

New Mexico was central to the early–20th-century conservation movement, with the Gila Wilderness designated as the world’s first wilderness area in 1924.^[96] The state also hosts nine of the country’s 84 national monuments, the most of any state after Arizona; these include the second oldest monument, El Morro, created in 1906, and the Gila Cliff Dwellings, proclaimed in 1907.^[96]

National forests in New Mexico

Carson National Forest
Cibola National Forest
Lincoln National Forest
Santa Fe National Forest
Gila National Forest
Gila Wilderness
Coronado National Forest (in Hidalgo County)

In January 2016, New Mexico sued the United States Environmental Protection Agency over negligence after the 2015 Gold King Mine waste water spill. The spill had caused heavy metals such as cadmium and lead, and toxins such as arsenic, to flow into the Animas River, polluting several states’ water basins.^[103] The state has since implemented or considered stricter regulations and harsher penalties for spills associated with resource extraction.^[104]

New Mexico is a major producer of greenhouse gases.^[105] A Colorado State University study found that the state’s oil and gas industry generated 60 million metric tons of greenhouse gases in 2018, over four times more than previously estimated.^[105] The fossil fuels sector accounted for over half the state’s overall emissions, which totaled 113.6 million metric tons, about 1.8% of the country’s total and more than twice the national average per capita.^[105][106] The New Mexico government has responded with efforts to regulate industrial emissions, promote renewable energy, and incentivize the use of electric vehicles.^[106][107]

With just 17 people per square mile (6.6 people/km²), New Mexico is one of the least densely populated states, ranking 45th out of 50; the population density of the U.S. overall is 90 people per square mile (35 people/km²). The state has 33 counties and 106 municipalities, which include cities, towns, villages, and a consolidated city-county, Los Alamos. Only three cities have at least 100,000 residents: Albuquerque, Rio Rancho, and Las Cruces, whose respective metropolitan areas together account for the majority of New Mexico’s population.^[108]

Residents are concentrated in the north-central region, anchored by the state’s largest city, Albuquerque. Centered in Bernalillo County, the Albuquerque metropolitan area includes New Mexico’s third-largest city, Rio Rancho, and has a population of over 918,000, accounting for one-third of all New Mexicans. It is adjacent to Santa Fe, the capital and fourth-largest city. Altogether, the Albuquerque–Santa Fe–Los Alamos combined statistical area includes more than 1.17 million people, nearly 60% of the state population.

New Mexico’s other major center of population is in the south-central area around Las Cruces, its second-largest city and the largest city in the state’s southern region. The Las Cruces metropolitan area has roughly 214,000 residents, and with neighboring El Paso, Texas, forms a combined statistical area numbering over 1 million.^[109]

New Mexico hosts 23 federally recognized tribal reservations, including part of the Navajo Nation, the largest and most populous tribe; of these, 11 hold off-reservation trust lands elsewhere in the state. The vast majority of federally recognized tribes are concentrated in the northwest, followed by the north-central region.

Like several other southwestern states, New Mexico has numerous colonias—unincorporated, low-income slums characterized by abject poverty, absence of basic services (such as water and sewage), and scarce housing and infrastructure.^[110] The University of New Mexico estimates there are 118 colonias in the state, though the U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development identifies roughly 150.^[111] Most are along the Mexico–United States border.

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